Handbook Of Porous Media Pdf Creator
In, 2015 3.5.13 Multiphase Lubricant ConcentratesMultiphase lubricant concentrates as an additive for water-based drilling fluids and borehole servicing fluids have been described in Ref. 186.The oil phase can be an ester mixture of substantially saturated fatty acids based on palm kernel oil and 2-ethylhexanol, hydrogenated castor oil, or glycerol monolaurate.Heating of the multiphase formulations to temperatures in the phase inversion temperature range or higher followed by cooling to temperatures below the phase inversion temperature leads to water-based oil-in-water emulsions with an extremely fine-particle oil phase. The particle fineness of the emulsions can be so great that their particles are no longer optically visible. Instead, the emulsions have a transparent, opalescent appearance.
This state can be preserved over relatively long periods of storage by adequately lowering the temperature of the mixture below the phase inversion temperature range 186. Todd Elder, Andrew Bell, in, 2005 11.5.1 Preparation of Encapsulated PCMsA representative process for preparing PCM encapsulates is described here.An oil phase is prepared by mixing 331 grams methyl methacrylate, 142 grams methacrylic acid, 2.3 grams butanediol diacrylate, 1,102 grams octadecane, and 4.7 grams lauroyl peroxide. The oil phase is added to a stirred, nitrogen degassed vessel at 70°C containing 3,235 grams water, 175 grams polyvinyl alcohol (Gohsenol GH-20), and 7.1 grams acrylamido methyl propane sulphonic acid sodium salt. The contents are allowed to exotherm, after which the temperature is maintained at 85°C for an additional hour prior to being cooled and filtered.
The resulting capsule dispersion contains polymeric particles, each of which is comprised of a polymeric shell encapsulating the octadecane wax and having a solids content of 35%. The average particle size is 2 μm. Structure of the surfactants that allow the preparation of a stable w 1/o/w 2 emulsion over a one-month period at room temperature: (a) schematic structure of A-B-A block copolymer (Arlacel P135), (b) cethyl dimethicone copolyol (Abil EM 90 ®), and (c) polyglycerol esters of ricinoleic acid (PGR).The hydrophilic emulsifier employed was selected from sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES) ethoxylated (Steol CS-330 ®, Stepan Company, Northfield, IL 60093; 28.5% active), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) (Aldrich Chemical Company, Milwaukee, WI). Cocamidopropylbetaine (betaine) was also used (Tego Betaine F ®, Goldschmidt Chemical Corp., Hopewell, VA; 30% active, 5% NaCl).The polymeric thickeners employed were xanthan gum (XG) and guar gum (GG) (Colony Industries Inc., Holtsville, NY), Carbopol ® 941 (CP) (BF Goodrich, Cleveland, OH), and hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) (Aqualon Division, Hercules Inc., Wilmington, DE).
Tarek Ahmed, in, 2019 Critical oil saturation, S ocFor the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a certain value, which is termed critical oil saturation. At this particular saturation, the oil remains in the pores and, for all practical purposes, will not flow. Residual oil saturation to water, S orwDuring the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media by water or gas injection (or encroachment), there will be some remaining oil left that is quantitatively characterized by a saturation value that is larger than the critical oil saturation. This saturation value is called the Residual Oil Saturation to water S orw. The term residual saturation is usually associated with the nonwetting phase when it is being displaced by a wetting phase. Movable oil saturation, S om.
WhereS wc = connate water saturationS oc = critical oil saturation Critical gas saturation, S gcAs the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas evolves from the oil phase and consequently the saturation of the gas increases as the reservoir pressure declines. The gas phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds a certain saturation, called critical gas saturation, above which gas begins to move.
Critical water saturation, S wcThe critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and irreducible water saturation are extensively used interchangeably to define the maximum water saturation at which the water phase will remain immobile. Tarek Ahmed, in, 2010 Critical Oil Saturation, S ocFor the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a certain value, which is termed critical oil saturation. At this particular saturation, the oil remains in the pores and, for all practical purposes, will not flow. Residual Oil Saturation, S orDuring the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media by water or gas injection (or encroachment), some remaining oil will be left that is quantitatively characterized by a saturation value that is larger than the critical oil saturation.
This saturation value is called the residual oil saturation, S. The term residual saturation is usually associated with the nonwetting phase when it is being displaced by a wetting phase.
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Movable Oil Saturation, S om. S om = 1 − S wc − S ocwhere S wc = connate water saturationS oc = critical oil saturation Critical Gas Saturation, S gcAs the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas evolves from the oil phase and consequently the saturation of the gas increases as the reservoir pressure declines. The gas phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds a certain saturation, called critical gas saturation, above which gas begins to move.
Critical Water Saturation, S wcThe critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and irreducible water saturation are extensively used interchangeably to define the maximum water saturation at which the water phase will remain immobile. Tarek Ahmed, in, 2010 Critical oil saturation, S ocFor the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a certain value, which is termed critical oil saturation.
At this particular saturation, the oil remains in the pores and, for all practical purposes, will not flow. Residual oil saturation, S orDuring the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media by water or gas injection (or encroachment), there will be some remaining oil left that is quantitatively characterized by a saturation value that is larger than the critical oil saturation. This saturation value is called the residual oil saturation, S. The term residual saturation is usually associated with the nonwetting phase when it is being displaced by a wetting phase. Movable oil saturation, S om. S om = 1 − S wc − S ocwhere S wc = connate water saturationS oc = critical oil saturation Critical gas saturation, S gcAs the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas evolves from the oil phase and consequently the saturation of the gas increases as the reservoir pressure declines. The gas phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds a certain saturation, called critical gas saturation, above which gas begins to move.
Critical water saturation, S wcThe critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and irreducible water saturation are extensively used interchangeably to define the maximum water saturation at which the water phase will remain immobile. Ehsan Mahdavi, Fatemeh Sadat Zebarjad, in, 2018 2.3.1 Polymer FloodingCompared to oil phase, water movement is faster in reservoir; therefore, to avoid viscous fingering, polymers are added to water (displacing phase) in order to increase the viscosity and reduce the mobility of the water and finally increase the sweep efficiency.Xanthan gum and partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (PHPA) are the most common types of polymer used in polymer flooding. Polysaccharide structure of xanthan gum is a great resource used by bacteria. Even adding the combination of both biocide and xanthan polymer to an oil well with bacteria issues will not be successful due to molecular weight difference of xanthan and biocide. Moreover, xanthan biopolymer has a lower molecular weight and higher price compared to PHPA which is less economical for large-scale projects.
Therefore, PHPA is the most used polymer in field studies. On the other hand, high molecular weight PHPA increases water viscosity, while in low permeability formations, it causes polymer retention on rock surface.Bailey 29 and Taber 8 have adopted reservoir screening criteria for polymer flooding. The reservoir properties that should be considered are reservoir type, permeability, oil viscosity, reservoir temperature, and formation water salinity. Table 2.1 shows the range and average value of some screening criteria for polymer flooding. Based on the literature, formation water salinity must be lower than 10,000 ppm for a successful polymer flooding.Sandstone reservoirs are mostly the preferred type of reservoirs for polymer flooding projects and Daqing (1996–2010) as a large-scale project is an example of successful project with 10%–12% average recovery 30.
On the other hand, recent studies also show that polymer flooding is an option for unconventional reservoirs as well 31, while permeability of the reservoir is an essential factor in polymer solution propagation as mentioned earlier. The average permeability reported for 40 successful treatments was 563 mD compared to 112 mD for three discouraging projects 32.
Another sensible approximation is the pore throat radius that should at least be five times greater than the root mean square radius of gyration of the polymer 33.Polymer concentration is another important factor that should be considered for successful polymer flooding, while low polymer concentration (213 ppm) 34 causes viscosity reduction; moreover, inappropriate mixing mechanism results in a similar effect 35. In this regard, it is noted that special mixing equipment is required to mix the polymer with the injected water to avoid forming fish-eye. Also, oxygen jeopardizes the polymer stability while degrading the polymer structure; therefore, oxygen scavenger is used as a solution for this problem. Likewise, high salinity formation water has high negative effect on the PHPA structure; divalent and trivalent cations of salt interact with the PHPA structure and precipitate. A well-known solution for this problem is injecting a low salinity water preflush prior to polymer slug.
It is worthwhile to note that Xanthan biopolymer can tolerate water salinity more than PHPA.The maximum reservoir temperature reported for polymer flooding is reported to be 237.2°F, but in general, 62% of the projects were implemented in 108–158°F 14; therefore, chemical EOR is not recommended for high-temperature wells. The mobility ratio of water and oil phase depends on the viscosity of the oil. It has been shown that incremental oil recovery increases with increasing oil viscosity lower than 30 cp, while at greater oil viscosities, the incremental oil recovery decreases 36; moreover, based on data of 70 chemical projects (mainly polymer flooding), most of the projects have been carried out in reservoirs with oil viscosity over the range of 9–75 cp 14.In addition to Daqing project and many polymer flooding projects in China, some pilot and large-scale polymer flooding projects have been reported worldwide. North Burbank in the United States, Pelican Lake in Canada, El Tordillo field in Argentina, Jhalora field in India, Buracica and Canto do Amaro fields in Brazil, and Marmul field in Oman are some examples of polymer flooding in Sandstone reservoirs 17,37,38. Stage:Material:Wt%Oil Phase:1AEC Dimethicone V1002.0002AEC Hydroxyoctacosanyl Hydroxystearate5.0003AEC Methoxy PEG 22 Dodecylglycol Copolymer2.0004AEC PEG 45 Dodecylglycol Copolymer4.0005Tioveil FIN12.5006Cocoa Butter, Refined3.0007Octyl Palmitate5.0008AEC Diisostearyl Trimethylolpropane Siloxy Silicate7.500Aqueous Phase:9Water; Pure53.35010Preservative as required0.40011Propylene Glycol USP5.000Cooling Cycle:12Fragrance0.250Mixing Instructions:NOTE: The Aqueous is added to the Oil Phase. The product is a w/o emulsion and is water resistant.
Journal Of Porous Media
Weigh the items of the Oil Phase into a jacketed vessel and heat to 80/85C with stirring, ensure the Tioveil TG is fully dispersed before slowly adding the Aqueous Phase while vigorously mixing. Once addition is complete the emulsion is cooled with slow speed stirring, the perfume added and the product given a final high shear mix. Formula Ref.: 780.2.
Sohrab Zendehboudi PhD, Alireza Bahadori PhD, CEng, in, 2017 1 IntroductionHydrocarbons in the forms of oil and gas phases are the primary energy sources which humans around the globe depend on to provide fuel for the advanced technologies that we rely on to make our lives easier. Thus, the demand for energy from fossil fuels is constantly on the rise to meet our increasingly energy-intensive lifestyles 1–3.Natural gas is a fossil fuel which is derived from living organisms that are buried under the earth's crust.
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Over time, heat and pressure convert the organisms into oil and gas. It is one of the cleanest and most efficient sources of energy. Due to its high calorific value and no ash content, it is widely employed as a major fuel in several sectors such as automobile, refining, house heating, and so on 1–3.Natural gas has been used as an energy source in Canada since the 1800s, but it did not become a common energy source until the late 1950s. Following the construction of the Trans Canada Pipeline, it started gaining popularity. After the price hike of crude oil in the late 1970s, its demand grew very quickly.
The oil crisis resulted in long line-ups outside gas stations, which caused decision-makers to consider natural gas. The environment safety concern has also added to its popularity because burning of natural gas is cleaner, compared to other fossil fuels 1–3.Natural gas comes from both conventional and unconventional formations.
The key difference between conventional and unconventional natural gases is the method, ease, and cost associated with technology of extraction/production 1–3.Shale gas is natural gas, one of several forms of unconventional gas. Shale gas is trapped within shale formations with low permeability, which is fine-grained sedimentary rock. The rock acts as its source as well as a reservoir. The shale rock appears to be the storage material and also the creator of the gas through the decomposition of organic matters.
Therefore, the techniques used at one well may not result in success at another shale gas location 2,4,5.Shale reserves discovered across the world consist of several billion of tons of trapped oil and gas, making them fossil fuel resources of the century 1,2. It is estimated that approximately 456 × 10 12 m 3 of shale gas are available globally 6. Development of economic, eco-friendly and safer drilling technologies to access trapped gas, made shale resources the next big reliable source of energy in the world, particularly in North America 7.
The US Department of Energy projects that shale gas will occupy 50% of total energy produced in the country by 2035, that is, around 340 billion cubic meters/year 8. In addition to the production of natural gas, other fuels like NGLs (natural gas liquids; propane and butane) are simultaneously produced from the shale reservoirs 3,7.The gas in many US shale formations such as Antrim shale formation (Michigan) and New Albany Shale formation (Illinois) has been created in the last 10,000–20,000 years 9.
In 1825, the first extraction of shale gas was performed in Fredonia (NY) in shallow and low-pressure fractures. In naturally fractured Devonian shales, the development of the Big Sandy gas field commenced in Floyd County, Kentucky, 1915 10. Until 1976, the field extended over 1000 square miles of southern West Virginia and into eastern Kentucky, with production from the Cleveland Shale and the Ohio Shale, together called the “Brown Shale,” where there are 5000 wells in Kentucky alone. By the 1940s, to stimulate the shale wells, explosive down the hole operations had been utilized.
In 1965, other efficient techniques, such as hydraulic fracturing (including 42,000 gallons of water and 50,000 pounds of sand), were developed for production wells, particularly those with low recovery rates 10. The average production per-well was small since the flow rate was mainly dependent on the existence of natural fractures; however, the field had a final gas recovery of 2 × 1012 ft3. In the 1920s, there were other widespread commercial gas production basins such as Michigan, Appalachian, and Illinois basins in the Devonian-age shale, though the production was typically insignificant 10.The discovery and exploitation of shale oil and gas present a major innovation with economic and political implications for developing countries.
In recent years, the rapid expansion of shale gas development and production has had a profound impact on the current and future of the global energy market. The advancement of natural gas production from shell formations is revolutionizing the energy industry in general and the oil and gas and petrochemical sectors in particular.
North America, especially the United States of America (USA) is leading the development of this new type of hydrocarbon resources. Innovations in extraction (or/and production) technologies have made access to these vast amounts of natural gas resources technically and economically feasible.Depending on the downstream use of the natural gas, shale gas may have a net negative or positive impact on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 10–12. In the USA, the abundance of cheap natural gas from fracking will likely replace coal as the preferred fuel for energy generation. This will likely decrease the American energy sector's GHG emissions. In other regions such as the United Kingdom, however, natural gas might supersede fledgling renewable energy operations and have a net negative impact on climate change 10–12.As the global significance of shale gas increases, there is a need for better understanding of the shale characteristics, shale gas production and processing, and potential, environmental, social and economic impacts within its value chain.
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